Sunday, June 14, 2009

business research studies, consulting organization, What sort of pre-presentation handouts would you prepare before making a presentation

This article is of poor quality...



Yours is a consulting organization, which undertakes business research studies. A prospective client visits your organization and wants to know the types of jobs your organization undertakes. What sort of pre-presentation handouts would you prepare before making a presentation to him?


"It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good important speech." Most good public presentations, no matter how easy or spontaneous they look. require diligent preparation, as well as an understanding of the key principles of presenting — designing the message, engaging the learner, rehearsing the delivery, and mastering presentation skills and technologies.
Emergency medicine academicians speak to a wide range of audiences including colleagues, nurses, paramedics/EMTs, and the lay public. "Academicians should be eager to give lectures because to teach is to learn. Presentations are an excellent opportunity for the presenter to learn, as well as gain feedback and insights from the audience, literally "road testing" the materials. Speaking before a group is also a great motivator to be well prepared. (I have a rule that I never give the same speech twice — i.e., no "canned" presentations unless it's an emergency. Each speech is used as an opportunity to update Speaking to (and with) an audience is still one of the most can ad lib, improvise, and adjust instantaneously to meet the needs of the audience. Importantly, conversation can be 2 way with valuable feedback gained from the audience. Although presentations are ubiquitous in healthcare education, public speaking is unfortunately learned, for better or worse, by imitation or trial-and-error. In this chapter, I will review the art of message design and discuss techniques for effectively communicating that message through oral presentations.
The Presenter's Responsibilities
Consider a 1-hour presentation attended by 20 people. The "cost" is 20 human hours times the hourly value of each
person's time. That's a lot of time and cost not to mention the
effort required for each audience member to travel to the presentation and break up their day to do so. To justify this cost, the presenter must be well prepared and the information
thoughtfully presented and pertinent to the listeners' needs.
Apologies are an unacceptable way to begin a. presentation and an admission of poor preparation. "I'm sorry, but some of my
slides didn't turn out so well." "I'm sorry I spilled all my slides on the floor." "I'm sorry I left my handouts in the office." Such
problems waste the audience's valuable time and get the
presentation off on the wrong foot. For the well-prepared speaker, such problems should almost never happen.
"Lecture" vs. "Presentation"
A lecture is unidirectional and is typically perceived by the audience as boring. The word "lecture" connotes a scolding or reproof. In contrast, the presentation, as defined by Ron Huff, is a commitment by the presenter to help the audience do
something—and a constant, simultaneous evaluation of the
worth of that commitment by the audience. This definition emphasizes the audience's, rather than the presenter's, self-interest. In the presentation, communication is bidirectional with the audience showing and telling the presenter how he or she is doing.
Think back to all me presentations you've heard. What made
the best ones so memorable? What made the worst, ones so forgettable? The best presenters probably incorporated some or
all of the following elements—humor, entertainment,
Simplicity;' organization, connection with the audience, depth of knowledge, and ability to communicate. The elements of not so great lectures probably included poor preparation, monotonous delivery, encyclopedic information, and little interaction with the audience. (Table 1 presents a more complete listing of these elements.)
Designing the Message
Luisa Simons wrote, "Being a successful presenter means learning how to edit, structure, and illustrate your concepts in
order to inform, influence - and entertain - your audience. You
have to be part editor, part director, and part showman." The purposes of a presentation include conveying a message.

distilling information, motivating a group, communicating a vision, and pointing the audience to additional learning resources.
To receive a message, the learner must remain awake, alert, and engaged. The presentation is not the time to become a "human encyclopedia" inflicting fact after fact on a numbed audience. Walt Whitman, in Leaves of Grass wrote, "The art of art, the glory of expression and the sunshine of the light of letters, is simplicity." Rather than say more, the presenter should say less, concentrating on 3-5 major points. Audiences appreciate distilled information and a "road map" for learning.
The key to designing an effective message is understanding who the audience is and researching their needs. The audience should be scouted in advance to determine their level of knowledge and educational needs. Put yourself in their place. What questions would you want answered? Better yet, if you have the time, conduct an informal survey of persons representative of your audience and ask them, :;Which questions do you want me to address on this topic?"
I use a checklist to help me prepare for'a presentation:
• What is the composition and level of training of the audience—physicians, nurses, administrators, lay public etc.9
• What is the mix of specialties and practice locations?
• What is the anticipated size of the audience?
• What is the knowledge level—student, resident, practitioner, expert?
• Why is the audience attending? Is attendance required for CME hours? Is it a mandatory educational lecture?
• How long should I speak?
• Are there any important points you would like me to reinforce?
• What equipment will be available (computer, Zip drive, CD-ROM, projector, laser pointer, etc.)
Techniques for Engaging the Learner
The presenter nrust overcome numerous diversions competing
for the audience's attention by employing techniques that
make the message rise above the "background noise." Here is a
listing of some of these techniques:
Participatory Learning
It has been said that we remember approximately 25 percent
of what we hear, 40 percent of what we see and hear, and 75
percent of what we hear, see, and do. When learning becomes
participatory or interactive, learners remember for a longer time in a shorter time and have more fun. Techniques that I employ to increase audience participation include:
• Identify for the audience why this presentation is important to them "(i.e.. "This injury is the #1 cause of successful litigation against emergency physicians."
• Ask frequent "thought-provoking" questions, even if they're
rhetorical.
• Give a pre-presentation test where the audience must commit to an answer, then discuss the answers as a group.
• Begin with a clinical case and questions that illustrate the 3-5 major points of the presentation.
• Use a computer-based audience response system to instantly tabulate and display the audience's answers to questions.
Tell Stories
Instead of listing facts, tell stories. The human mind is particularly receptive to information imparted through story telling. (Before the invention of communication technologies, human knowledge and wisdom was transmitted stories, myths, and epic poetry.) Interject relevant clinical cases and
anecdotes. Stimulate the audience's imagination through
imagery.
Repetition
The presentation should promote long-term memory retention.
Repetition of the 3-5 major points is the key to retention. Some
wag once said that since the audience is paying attention only
25% of the time, the presenter must repeat everything 4 times
Provide Breaks
The teacher's role is to increase the student's level of mental
arousal and maintain their attention. The length of the lecture should as a rule be less than 55 minutes. As a courtesy, for prolonged sessions, the audience should be given a 5' 10 minute stretch (ergonomic) break or "biological break" every hour. (I appoint one of the audience members to be time keeper and Champiorrof-Breaks.)
Humor
Orlando Battista said, "The shortest distance between two jokes makes a perfect speech." Humor delivered with finesse.

a wonderful way to engage the audience and hold their attention. But edit out anything that might be offensive. An offended, angry audience has stopped paying attention. Never Read a Speech
The text of a speech should never be read. Reading is literally monotonous as it loses the dynamics of conversational speech. This is why "elevator music," intentionally stripped of dynamics, remains unnoticed in the background. (One notable exception to reading a lecture is the international meeting where translators need a script of the presentation.) Other Techniques to Hold Attention
• Move around the room. Never hide behind a podium.
• Look around the room and shift eye contact from one individual to another. (This also allows you to estimate the attentiveness of the group.)
• Never turn the room lights down unless absolutely necessary.
• Use extra effort to engage the audience during these highly soporific situations—the early morning lecture (have plenty of coffee ready), the after lunch lecture (post-prandial stupor), and the final lecture of the day (audience burn-out and skip-out).
Practicing
Rehearsal is preparation time- devoted to the most crucial and difficult parts of the presentation while simulating the actual
speaking conditions"-as closely as possible. Practice should not be going through the preservation time after time. Instead, rehearsal time should be spent on the opening and closing of
the presentation, pacing and delivery, and smoothing out rough spots.
Public speaking is much like flying a plane. Once the plane's
in the air, the flight is usually smooth and on "autopilot." It's
getting the plane into the air and landing it that are the most difficult tasks. Therefore, most of your rehearsal time should
be spent on getting your presentation "launch" and "landing"—
the first 60-90 seconds and closing 2-3 sentences. Script out the opening and closing of the presentations to help prevent getting "tongue tied' during these crucial times. Practice smooth transitions from one slide to the next as well pauses, where appropriate, for dramatic effect.
When rehearsing, simulate the actual speaking conditions or worst case scenario you are likely to encounter as closely as possible. When a professional football team is going to be playing in a noisy domed stadium, they conduct, some of their practices with a public address system blaring crowd noises at the same or higher decibel levels they are likely to encounter. Demonsthenes, the renowned Greek orator, overcame his inarticulate, stammering pronunciation by practicing with his mouth full of pebbles. Here are some other rehearsal tips'-
• If you're practicing with slides, never rehearse by facing the screen – this is not how you will be delivering the presentation.. Instead, pretend you're facing the audience and practice turning; your head to cue-off the slides.
• Speak the words rather than hear them in your mind. Author Hermann Hesse said, "Everything becomes a little different, as soon as it is spoken out loud."
• When possible, rehearse in front of a live audience. 1 find resident physicians to be the best, "test" audience for new material. Knowledgeable, insightful, and not shy about pointing out the "warts" in my presentation, they are wonderful critics (in the best sense of the word).
• In the absence of a large audience, practice in front of your spouse, significant other, dog, or a mirror or video or audio tape the presentation for review.
Presentation Techniques
Managing Stage Fright
Among the things most feared by healthcare professionals are
a certified letter from an attorney's office, discovering that "60
Minutes" is interviewing your patients, and speaking in public. For many people, speaking in front of an audience, to
paraphrase actor John Barrymore, is exactly like childbirth—
they're glad to get it over with. Fear of public speaking, which
is almost universal, can range from "stomach butterflies" to
"fight or flight" panic. The solution is to channel that fear to
energize your presentation and motivate you to be well
prepared.
Several "rituals" can be undertaken to reduce anxiety and
bolster confidence"-
• In advance of the presentation, visit the room where your presentation will be given.
* Stand at the podium and pretend you're facing either a packed house of exuberant people or an empty hall with 3 people sound asleep. Imagine how you would handle either, extreme.
• It has been suggested that the presenter imagine the audience are naked because presumably naked people are less intimidating. (Personally, my imagination is too vivid for this to work for me.)
• Avoid any caffeine for hours before the presentation. The combination of caffeine and anxiety will fill the bladder, further increasing any agitation.
• Finally, some anxious presenters swear by beta-blockers prior to the presentation when all else fails. (Be sure to trial these on a day other than your presentation!)
"Pre-Flight" Checklist
Just prior to your presentation, go through a pre-flight
checklist:
• Note where the audio-visual equipment is located (projector remote control, lighting controls, etc.) and test that they are functioning properly.
• Test the microphone. Ask someone in the back of the room if they can hear you.
• Is your slide carrousel hub and bottom metal pan locked in
• Is your clothing neat? Is there a chive stuck between your teeth?
• Chat with members of the audience before the lecture to gauge their level of knowledge.
• If this is a scientific platform presentation, arrive early to introduce yourself to the moderator and panel discussants.
Beginning the Presentation
As you prepare to begin the speech, face the microphone and
get "settled in." Take a few deep breaths...then smile. A smile
conveys to the audience that you are having fun and happy to be with them. As we discussed earlier, never begin by apologizing as this only calls attention to shortcomings that might otherwise have been overlooked. Body language is
important. Don't lean against the podium or fidget nervously
with the slide projector cord And be aware that every time you lay something down on the podium, the microphone picks up the noise.
A strong opening, which should be assiduously rehearsed, is paramount. The presenter must establish his or her credibility, engage the audience, divert their attention from competing interests, and establish the purpose of the presentation in the first minute. If you get started without
stumbling over your words, you'll quickly gain confidence and
likely "cruise on auto pilot."
Closing" the Presentation
Never end a presentation with a feeble statement such as
"Well, I guess that's all I have" or conclude with an "Any
Questions?" final slide. This is not the message you want the audience to take home. Instead, script out and practice a strong, slightly emotional concluding statement that leaves the audience with a vivid mental image.
Timing is Everything
There's an old proverb that says. "It always takes a person
much longer to tell you what he thinks than what he knows." As a corollary, the shorter the speech, the more difficult the preparation. In the case of the scientific oral platform presentation, each word and slide must be carefully chosen to stay within the allotted 10-minute time frame.
Practice to finish in less than the allotted time—nobody ever
got mad at a speaker for finishing too soon. Never try to cram 11 minutes worth of material into a 10 minute space by speaking faster. Instead, take out slides, especially those where you have to explain a lot of bulleted points.
The Performance Factor
Be enthusiastic and interactive and let your personality show! One of the reasons the audience is listening to you (rather than reading the information) is they want to see your personality and hear your perspective. Be interesting, but avoid over-entertaining which may obscure your message. Finally, put as much energy into presenting to a group of 3 as you would to a group of 300.
Handouts
Handouts help promote long term retention and provide a reference source for the audience. Preparing handouts also compels the presenter to prepare the information of the speech well in advance. Handouts free the audience to listen (rather than scribble notes) and allow them to make supplemental notes in the margin. Handsouts also help clarify detailed information (such as formulas or lists).
Presentation Technologies
The best audio-visual aid is you, the speaker. Presentations don't need slides to be effective. Imagine what it must have
been like to see and hear Mark Twain standing in front of an audience, without slides, microphone, or props, captivating the audience with humor, wit, and story telling. The use of slides, either 35 mm photographic slides or computer projection slides, is ubiquitous. These presentation technologies are the double-edged sword of presentations. Used effectively, such technology can enhance the transmission of the message. Used ineffectively, presentation technology can obscure or bury the message. A badly organized speech cannot be salvaged by 4-color graphics. Computer Projection
Computer projection systems, composed of a computer, presentation software suck as PowerPoint, and a projection system, are increasingly being used in favor of 35 ram film slides. There are several advantages to computer projection. Changes can be made at the last minute. Messages can be broken into smaller units since cost per slide is not an issue as it is with 35 mm film slides. Computer projection permits the use of multimedia including sound and motion graphics (video). And other programs, such as a live Medline search or CD-ROM images, can be projected. Computer projection systems have also introduced new problems and last minute wrinkles. The ability to make last minute change can lead to procrastination and poor preparation, such systems are more complex than 35 mm slide projectors, and not all venues have the proper equipment or connectors
Elements of Slide Design
Here are some elements of style for designing effective slides:
• Slides should amplify the spoken message.
• Slides should not be used as teleprompters.
• 1 major idea per slide.
• A maximum of 15-25 words per slide.
• The "Burma Shave Rule"—don’t pack any more into a visual than you could read off a billboard driving by at highway speed.
• The type should be readable from the back of room (typically at least 28 points in size).
• Choose type for readability and avoid novelty type faces.
• Stay away from all caps—the most readable type is an initial capital letter followed by lower case.
• Avoid red type which is difficult to read. Red is also an inflammatory color—just ask any bull.
• Flush left and ragged right alignment (not justified) is best for readability.
• One of the most readable color combinations is yellow title. yellow bullets, and white text on a blue background.
Beware of Gimmicks
Have you ever watched a TV commercial you thought was extremely clever and entertaining then realized that you had no idea whatsoever what product or company it was advertising? The message was somehow missing.
overshadowed by the presentation. Don't obscure the message
with gimmicks, avoid cliché, and always attempt to simplify. Before adding another element to a slide, ask "Does this element amplify the message or detract from it?" and "Is it
consistent with the message?" Notorious gimmicks that can obscure the message include cheesy clip art, complex slide backgrounds, flamboyant color schemes, and vacation pictures. Computer projection has opened up a new world of special effects, formerly limited to Hollywood, to the rest of us. These effects include animation, slide builds (where bulleted points fly into the picture one-byone), and electronic transitions (where one slide fades or dissolves into the next). Used sparingly, builds and transitions create movement that can
engage the audience's attention. Overuse, however, can induce
vertigo, nystagmus. and nausea. When ii comes to employing electronic enects, simplicity again rules. "Just because we can
doesn't mean we should."
5 Take Home Points
In conclusion, effective presentations are based on the
following 5 key principles:
1. Designing the message.
2. Understanding the audience and defining their needs.
3. Using techniques to engage the audience.
4. Telling stories and showing pictures.
5. Employing presentation technology to enhance rather than detract from the message.
If you have previously found public speaking difficult or anxiety provoking, I believe the application of these 5 key principles will help bring success to your future presentations.

Tuesday, June 9, 2009

Describe in brief, the importance of editing, coding, classification, tabulation and presentation of data in the context of research study.

Describe in brief, the importance of editing, coding, classification, tabulation and presentation of data in the context of research study.

Data required for the purpose of analysis & presentation of a research study is often consisting of errors such errors must be rectified before the final presentation is made.

This process involves editing, coding, classification, tabulation & presentation of data.
Editing- This is concerned with removal of redundant data, filling of missing data completeness of data substance & reliability of data. The data obtained from variance sources are not always complete-sometimes fields remain black due to the human errors also this requires to be corrected. It also corrects the entries present at wrong positions. Many techniques like filling the empty values by frequent values, average values, random value, lowest value etc are common. The editing must be performed just after the data have been collected. This ensures that consistency is maintained various details like editor. data of editing etc are recorded.
Coding^ Coding is performed to assign a predefined meaning to the data captured. The records that satisfy a given constraints are often marked with some Alphabets numerals etc. so that while sorting. Searching such records are taken out by a single search command. This concept is mutually exclusive.
Classification- This step of data sorting involves the segregation of data into various classified forms. The step of-classification makes the data analysis easy often a research study conducted. Serves not only single but multiple purposes. The various departments in organisation are interested in different aspects of the same data collected by the researches. These data correspond to the various form of analysis to make a particular decision. Data classification helps in making-comparisons & design strategies & policies for future action classification is performed accounting to various criterias like year wise, caste wise income group wise, department wise etc. During the problem study itself the classification criteria must be mentioned. Data classified into various forms may be further summed up to form an aggregated plan & even the aggregated data may be drilled down to achieve the desired results as per specifications.
Tabulation" Classified data is presented in the form of rows & columns called tables. Such an approach is helpful for sorting, indexing, searching, aggregating & performing all sorts of operations leading to the data bank. This is further used for performing what if analysis. They present data clearly & to the point. The table must have row & column name to identify what the table represents. There must also be table names & headings for proper presentation Table also help to perform joining of two data sources. There must be appropriate messages attached to the cells, column, Page header & footer to allow easy referencing. Table hence designed must present simple, accurate & clear picture of the conclave to be displayed. The table designed must be able to fulfill the basic criteria for which if were designed.
Presentation^ Data available in table in form of facts & figures are also presented in the form of the charts, pictorial graphics, picture analysis-graphics etc. This helps the top management to perform an effective data decision presentation is in the form of presentation is in the form of Graphics, pictorial. Pie charts etc. These are" tools for top managements for an accurate data interpretations.

"A problem well put is half solved". Comment

"A problem well put is half solved". Comment

A problem well-stated is a problem half-solved. John Dewey, philosopher Know what you are looking for so you don't get bogged down with information overload. Arm the Explorer with a well defined problem. Nothing is more dangerous than an idea when it is the only one your have, Emiie Chartier, Philosopher Look for as many facts, theories, concepts, rules, data, feelings and impressions as you can collect. A professional photographer takes literally hundreds of photos to get a few good ones. (At a recent Super Bowl, Sports Illustrated photographers shot 250 36-shot rolls of film to get the 10-20 shots that actually made the magazineJ A good problem-solver should generate many ideas in hopes of finding a really good so 1 u Lion.
Inventing is a skill that, some people have and some people don't. But you can learn how to invent. You have to have the will not to jump at the first solution. ..because the really elegant solution might be right around the corner. The most likely inventor candidate would be someone who says, "Yes, that's the one way to do it, but it doesn't seem to be an optimum solution." Then he keeps on thinking. Ray
Look Beyond the First Right Answer!
One thing can lead to something completely -different. • Shift your focus.

Research Methodology for Management Decisior.s(.MS-95)
• Don't overlook the obvious.
« Pay attention to the small tilings.
• Look at the big picture.
• Slay a dragon.
• Use obstacles to break out of ruts.
• Find the ideas you already have.
• Write it down!
People who are only good with hammers see every problem as a nail. Roger von Oech, author
The Explorer starts the creative problem-solving pi*ocess. To be effective, the Explorer must be courageous, flexible and open.
The Artist follows the Explorer, takes what the Explorer generated, and manipulates the ideas.
The artist is not a different kind of person, but every person is a different kind of artist, Eric Gill, Philosopher For the sound of a spaceship's high speed deceleration in the atmosphere of Jupiter, a sound designer on a science fiction movie tried, a few varied ideas. Then he set a piece of dry ice on a piece of sheet metal. He put a microphone nearby and heated the bottom side of the sheet metal with a blow torch. The quick melting of the dry ice gave the designer exactly what he was looking for. The Artist's tools are in his or her mind-
• Adapt-Change contexts.
• Imagme-Ask. "What if...?"
• Reverse-Look at it backwards.
» Connect-Join together.
• Compare-Make a metaphor.
• Eliminate-Break the rules.
• Parody-Fool around.
• Incubate-Do nothing.
Creative Thinking may simply mean the realization that there's no particular virtue in doing things the way they have always been done Roger von Oech.
Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an. artist after growing up.
The Judge takes over only after the Explorer and Artist are finished.
The Judge evaluates the results.
Play is what i do for a living; the work comes in evaluating the
results of the play. Mac MacDougall, Computer Architect
The Judge must evaluate based on some criteria and not be skewed
by wrong assumptions-
The human mind likes a strange idea as little as the body likes a
strange protein and resists it with similar energy. W. I. Beveridge.
Scientist
• What's wrong with this idea?
• What if it fails'?
* What assumptions am-I making?
• Are my assumptions current?
• What's my cultural bias?
* What clouding my thinking
• Bring in the fool.
• Make the Decision!
If you spend too much time warming up. you'll miss the race. If you
don't warm up at all, you may not finish the race. Grand Heidrich,
Runner
No matter how hard the Explorer, Artist and Judge worked, if the
solution isn't pursued, the idea is worthless. Making it happen is the
job of the Warrior.
Try? There is no try. There is only do or not do. Yoda in The Empire
Strikes Back
Remember'
• Change is inevitable.
• Everyone resists change.
Therefore, the Warrior must-
• Put together a plan.
• Put a fire in his or her belly.
• Put a lion is his or her heart.
• Get going.
• Strengthen his or her shield.
• Sell, Sell, Sell.
« Be persistent.
Either you let your life slip away by not doing the things you want to do. or you get up and do them!

Information Reports

Information Reports
In describing any person, object, situation, or concept, the following seven questions (6 Ws + 1 H) help to convey a comprehensive picture:
Subject/Object Action Reason
WHO? WHAT WHY?
WHOM? WHEN?
WHERE?
HOW?

Therefore, the comprehensiveness of an information or descriptive report can be checked by iteratively asking:
WHO does WHAT to WHOM
WHEN, WHERE, HOW
and WHY?

Information reports are the first step to understand the existing situation (for instance, business, economic, technological, labour, market, or research scenario reports) or what has been discussed or decided (for instance, the minutes of a meeting) form the foundation for subsequent decisions reports and research reports.

Decision Reports
Decision reports adopt the following steps of the problem solving approach:
1) Identifying the problem
2) Constructing the criteria
3) Generating and evaluating the options
4) Making a decision
5) Drawing up an action plan
6) Working out a contingency plan

Research Reports
Research reports contribute to the growth of subject literature. They pave the way for new information, significant hypotheses, and innovative and rigorous methods of research and measurement. They broadly have the following organization:
1) Literature survey to find gaps in knowledge.
2) Nature and scope of the study, hypothesis to be tested, and significance and utility of the study.
3) Methodology for collecting data, conducting the experiment, and analyzing the data.
4) Description and analysis of the experiment and data.
5) Findings.
6) Conclusions.
7) Recommendations.
8) Suggestions for further research.
9) Backup evidence and data.

Non parametric test

Non parametric test
Tests of hypotheses which deal with population parameters are called parametric, tests.

There are situations, particularly in psychological or in market research studies, where in the basic assumptions underlying the parametric tests are not valid or one does not have the knowledge of the distribution of the population parameter being tested. The tests which handle problems of these types are known as nonparametric tests or distribution free tests.
In the recent past, the nonparametric test have gained importance basically for three reasons:
(i) These tests require no or less restricting assumptions than the corresponding parametric tests,
(ii) These tests are more suitable for analyzing ranked, scaled or rated data, and
(iii) These tests involve very few arithmetic computations.
However, it must be understood that when basic assumptions about the parametric tests are valid, the nonparametric tests are less powerful than the parametric tests. Thus, there is a greater risk of accepting of false hypothesis and thus committing tests yield less defined thereby, when the null hypothesis is rejected, the nonparametric tests yield less precise conclusions compared to the parametric tests. For example, in parametric tests we have a test for quality of two population means compared to the two population distributions are identical of two population means compared to the two population distributions are identical in nonparametric tests. In this case, a rejection of null hypothesis in a parametric test would mean that the two population means are not equal while the rejection of the null hypothesis in the nonparametric test leads to the conclusion that the two population distributions are different, the specific form of the difference between the two distributions is not clearly specified.
The following are some of the typical situations for using nonparametric tests:
i) In a consumer behaviour survey for new package design, the response are not likely to be normally distributed but clustering around two extreme positions, with a very few respondents giving a neutral response to the package design.
ii) Sometimes, the responses to a question are given in terms of names (nominal data), which cannot be treated as numbers. For example, if we ask young graduates “in which part of the country would you like to take up a job and live”, the replies could be north, north-west, west or south, etc. Nominal data can be analysed only by nonparametric methods.
iii) In mailed questionnaire method of survey, more often partially filled missions data and make necessary adjustments to extract maximum information form the available data.
iv) Nonparametric tests can be used to provide reasonably good results even for very small samples.

DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
It has been pointed our earlier, that the discriminant analysis is a useful tool for situations where the total sample is to be divided into two or more mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups on the basis of a set of predictor variables. For example, a problem involving classifying sales people into successful and unsuccessful; classifying customers into owners or and non-owners of video tape recorder, are examples of discriminant analysis.
Objectives two group discriminant analysis:
1) Finding linear composites of the predictor variables that enable the analyst to separate the groups by maximizing among groups relative to with in-groups variation.
2) Establishing procedures for assigning new individuals, whose profiles but not group identity are known, to one of two groups.
3) Testing whether significant differences exist between the mean predictor variable profiles of the two groups.
4) Determining which variables account most for intergroup differences in mean profiles.

Discuss different elements of communication you keep in mind in presenting a report.

Discuss different elements of communication you keep in mind in presenting a report.

Difference elements of communication that we should consider while presenting a report are summerise as follows :-
1) Purpose of communication
The first step is to think through the purpose of the presentation and to focus it sharply. The presenter can try to achieve a variety of purposes. Some instances of presentation purposes are as follows:

Informing?
Selling?
Exploring?
Decision making?
Persuading?
Changing attitude or behaviour?

Within each of these, the focus can be sharpened by breaking them into subsets. For example, if it is a decision making situation, would the presenter be interested in persuading the audience to

a) accept a decision which has already been taken
b) vote on a decision
c) provide feedback for decision making
d) take a decision, or
e) explore areas which need attention for decision making at a later time.

2) Audience on target
In a presentation, multiple audiences interact at the same time. The sender and the receivers of the message keep changing roles through clarification queries, question and answer, dialogue, and discussion. It is a live and dynamic situation in which the presenter shapes the message in the open

3) Media
Moreover, a presentation helps to broaden or open up the horizon of thought. Therefore, to treat presentation as an extension of written medium by projecting written data on the screen and making the screen and making the audience read it is a self-defeating and expensive proposition. Also concentrating on any one medium – sight or sound—failing to take full advantage of the potentialities of presentation.

4) Message to be deliver
The presenter has to think of the focus of the message – its breadth and depth – as much as a writer does. But the dimensions are different. The presenter cannot get as much depth and complexity as a writer can achieve. Therefore, the focus of a presentation has to be different from that of a report.
A presentation concentrating on a single theme or a few major strands of a theme is more comprehensible to the audience and leaves a more lasting impression than the one with too many diverse issues.
Organization of the message is as important in presentation as in writing. Confused
Organization confuses the audience and leads them to focus their attention on unimportant or unintended issues.

5) Time of communication
Another major aspect is how much time is given to the presenter to make the presentation. This is a crucial dimension which decides the length and the overall communication mix.
The timing or sequencing of the message or its various parts is also significant. Is your audience prepared for it? When can get their maximum attention?
6) Place of communication
The presenter may not have much choice in selecting the place. But to make the best use of the place and the facilities available will depend on the presenter. Whether the room is square or rectangular, whether it is large or small enough for the audience, whether the seating arrangement is fixed or movable are some examples of the questions which bother a presenter. On the room arrangement depend the kind of audio-visual tools that can be used and the type of interaction that the presenter can have with audience.
7) Cost of communicatioin
The preparation of a good presentation is time consuming and expensive. The presenter should ask himself a ) whether he is trying to achieve thorough presentation what he could have easily achieved through written communication and b) whether he could use cheaper production methods and aids then the ones he has chosen to put across the message.

Discuss different steps associated with model development. What are simulation models ?

Discuss different steps associated with model development. What are simulation models ?

MODEL BUILDING/ MODEL DEVELOPMENT
The approach sued for model building or model development for managerial decision-making will vary from one situation to another. However, we can enumerate a number of generalized steps which can be considered as being common to most modeling efforts. The steps are:
1) Identifying and formulating the decision problem.
2) Identifying the objective(s) of the decision maker(s)
3) System elements identification and block building.
4) Determining the relevance of different aspects of the system.
5) Choosing and evaluating a model form.
6) Model calibration.
7) Implementation.

The decision problem for which the researcher intends to develop a model needs to be identified and formulated properly. Precise problem formulation can lead one to the right type of solution methodology. This process can require a fair amount of effort. Improper identification of the problem can lead to solutions for problems which either do not exist or are not important enough. A classic illustration of this is the case of a manager stating that the cause of bad performance of his company was the costing system being followed. A careful analysis of the situation by a consultant indicated that the actual problem lay elsewhere, i.e., the improper product-mix being produced by the company. One can easily see here the radically different solutions/models which could emerge for the rather different identifications of the problem!
The problem identification is accompanied by understanding the decision process and the objective(s) of the decision maker (s).Very often, specially in case of complex problems, one may run into situations of multiple conflicting objectives. Determination of the dominant objective, trading-off between the objectives, and weighting the objectives could be some ways of taking care or this problem. The typical objectives which could feature in such models can be maximizing profits, minimizing costs, maximizing employment, maximizing welfare, and so on.
The next major step in model building is description of the system in terms of blocks. Each of the blocks is a part of the system which has a few input variables. The decision-making system as a whole can be described in terms of interconnections between blocks and can be represented pictorially as a simple block diagram ( please refer figure4.) However, one should continuously question the relevance of the different blocks vis-à-vis the problem definition and the objectives. Inclusion of the not so relevant segments in the model increases the model complexity and solution effort.

A number of alternative modeling forms or structures may be possible. For instance, in modeling marketing decision-making situations, one may ask questions such as whether the model justifies assumptions of linearity, non-linearity (but linearizable ) and so on. Depending upon the modeling situation one may recommend the appropriate modeling form. The model selection should be made considering its appropriateness for the situation. One could evaluate it on criteria like theoretical soundness, goodness of fit to the historical data, and possibility of producing decisions which are acceptable in the given context.

SIMULATION MODELS
Simulation models are a distinct class of quantitative models, usually computer based, which are found to be of use for complex decision problems. The term’ simulation’ is used to describe a procedure of establishing a model and deriving a solution numerically. A series of trial and error experiments are conducted on the model to predict the behavior of the system over a period of time. In this way the operation of the real system can be replicated. This is also a technique which is used for decision-making under conditions of uncertainty. Generally, simulation is used for modeling in conditions where mathematical formulation and solution of model are not feasible. This methodology has been used in numerous types of decision problems ranging from queuing and inventory management to energy policy modeling. A detailed discussion of simulation is beyond the purview of this unit. For those of you who would like to read more on this, we would recommend a comprehensive text like Gordon (1987) or Shenoy et., al. (1983).

Semantic differential scale.

What is a semantic differential scale ? Explain the steps in construction of the scale. When will you use this scale ?

THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

The terms semantic differential scale refers to any collection of rating scales anchored by bipolar adjectives. It is very flexible approach to obtaining measures of attitudes. The object that is rated is called the “concept” and almost anything can be rated including family planning, cosmetics, shrikhand, political parties, etc.

Normally, a semantic differential scale is based on a seven-point rating scale for each of a number of attributes relating to the research topic. The extreme points represent the bipolar adjectives with the central category representing neutral. In the semantic differential scale only the extremes have names. The in-between categories have either blank spaces or sometimes a number. Some examples of the scale are as follows:
Good ………………………………. Bad
Honest………………………………. Dishonest
Progressive………………………….. Behind the times

The preparation of a semantic differential scale for a study requires expressing the things that could be used to describe the object, and thus serve as a basis for attitude formation, it terms of positive and negative statements. The negative phrase is sometimes put on the left side of the scale and sometimes on the right. This prevents a respondent with a positive attitude from simply checking either the left or right hand sides without reading the describing words.

The scale can be used for a variety of purposes. It can be used to check whether a respondent has a favorable attitude towards the object, which out of three neighborhood banks has the mot appealing profile for housewives. Etc.

It is possible to assign points to individual cells in the scale. Then one could arrive at the scores for comparisons of different objects. The figure1 gives an example based on image study of three neighborhood banks among a sample of 100 housewives.

SUMMATIVE MODELS: THE LIKERT SCALE
The summative models assume that the individual items in the scale are monotonically related to the underlying attributes and a summation of the item scores is related linearly to the attitude. In a summative model, one obtains the total score by adding scores on individual items. For the statements that imply negative attitudes, the scoring is reversed. The scales allow an expression of the intensity of feeling. These scales are also called Likert scales. Here, instead of having just “agree” and “disagree” in the scale, we can have intensities varying from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.

The scale construction consists of the following steps:

1) Write a large number of statements that concern the particular attitudinal object being investigated. For instance one may be looking at the role of voluntary agencies in providing health services in rural areas. Most of these statements should either be moderately positive or moderately negative. Natural items are generally avoided in these scales. The items should be evenly divided between positive and negative statements.
2) Administer the poll of statements on a group of respondents who are similar to the population on whom the scale will be used. For example, if we want to study the attitude of housewives the pool should be administered on a group of housewives with similar background to our final population.
3) Assign scale values to the degrees of agreement or disagreement with each item. The particular values may differ from one researcher to another. Sometimes one may adopt the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and sometimes +2, +1, 0, -1, -2. For negative items the directions should be reversed.
4) Calculate a total attitude score for each respondent using the same scaling procedure. The distribution of total scores is then used to refine the list of items. This step is called item analysis.
5) Items analysis : Analyze the responses and select for the scale those items which most clearly differentiate between the highest and lowest scores. This can be done by dividing the respondents into the high and the low scoring categories. The high scorers can be assumed to be with favorable attitudes and the low scorers can be taken as having the least favorable attitudes. If the statement is a good one, then it is a safe to expect that the mean score for the favorable group would be greater than the mean score for the unfavorable group. If the mean scores across the two groups, for an item, are found nearly equal or equal, then that statement can be dropped from the scale. One can take the high group as the twenty-five per cent of all total scores and the low group as the lowest twenty-five per cent. Alternatively we divide the respondents into quartiles and compute the median score for each item for the highest twenty-five per cent and the lowest twenty-five per cent of scale scores.
6) The statements remaining in the pruned list are randomly ordered on the scale form. The positive and negative ones are mixed.
7) The scale is now administered on the respondents who are asked to indicate their degree of agreement with the item. A respondent’s score is generated as the sum of his scores on each statement.
The summated scales have certain advantages. They are easy to construct, are highly reliable and can be adapted to the measurement of many different kinds of attitudes.

Differentiate between the following :

Differentiate between the following :

(a) Primary data and secondary data
(b) Sampling and census
(c) Stratified sampling and cluster sampling

(a) PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. Such data are published by authorities who themselves are responsible for collection.
The secondary data. On the other hand, are those which have already been collected by some other agency and which have already been processed.
Generally speaking secondary data are information which have previously been collected by some organization to satisfy its own need buy it is being used by the department under reference for an entirely different reason.
For example, the census figures are published every tenth year by the Registrar General of India. But the census figures are also used by demographers and other social scientists for planning and research.
Thus, the officials of the department of Registrar General will visualize the census figures as primary data. But a demographer using the same census figures to prepare a mortality table will consider them as secondary data.


(b) SAMPLING AND CENSUS
The census or consists in collecting data from each and every unit from the population. The sampling only chooses a part of the units from the population for the same study. The sampling has a number of advantages a compared to complete enumeration due to a variety of reasons.
The first obvious advantage of sampling is that it is less expensive. If we want to study the consumer reaction before launching a new product it will be much less expensive to carry out a consumer survey based on a sample rather than studying the entire population which is the potential group of customers. Although in decennial census every individual is the potential group of customers. Although in decennial census every individual is enumerated, certain aspects of the population are studied on a sample basis with a view to reduce cost.
The smaller size of the sample enables us to collect the data more quickly than to survey all the units of the population even if we are willing to spend money. This is particularly the case if the decision is time bound. An accountant may be interested to know the total inventory value quickly to prepare a periodical report like a monthly balance sheet and a profit and loss account. A detailed study on the inventory is likely to take too long to enable him to prepare the report in time.
If we want to measure the consumer prices even if the expenditure is not a hindrance. The collection of data on all the consumer items and their processing in all probability are going to take more than a month. Thus when ready, the price index will not serve any meaningful purpose.

It is possible to achieve greater accuracy by using appropriate sampling techniques than by a complete enumeration of all the units of the population. Complete enumeration may result in accuracies of the data. Consider an inspector who is visually inspector who is visually inspecting the quality of the finishing of certain machinery. After observing a large number of such items he cannot just distinguish items with defective finish from good ones. Once such inspection fatigue develops the accuracy of examining the population completely is considerably decreased. On the other hand, if a small number of items is observed the basic data will be much more accurate.
It is of course true that the conclusion about a population characteristic such as the proportion of defective items from a sample will also introduce error in the system. However, such errors, known as sampling errors, can be studied, controlled and probability statements can be made about their magnitude.
The accuracy which results due to fatigue of the inspector is known as non sampling error. It is difficult to recognize the pattern of the non sampling error and it is not possible to make any comment about its magnitude even probabilistically.

Sampling is indispensable if the enumeration is destructive. If you are interested in computing the average life of fluorescent lamps supplied in a batch the life of the entire batch cannot be examined to compute the average since this means that the entire supply will be waste. Thus, in this case there is no other alternative than to examine the life of a sample of lamps and draw an inference about the entire batch.

(C)STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING AND CLUSTER SAMPLING
The sample random sampling may not always provide a representative miniature of the population. Certain segments of a population can easily be under represented when an unrestricted random sample is chosen. Hence, when considerable heterogeneity is present in the population with regard to subject mater under study, it is often a good idea to divide the population into segments or strata and select a certain number of sampling units from each stratum thus ensuring representation from all relevant segments. Thus for designing a suitable marketing strategy for a consumers durable, the population of consumers may b e divided into strata by income level and a certain number of consumers can be selected randomly from each strata. Speaking formally, the population of N units is subdivided into K sub-populations or strata the ith sub-population having Ni unit (i = 1, 2 ……..K). These sub-populations are non overlapping so that they comprise the whole population such that
N1 + N2 + ……..+ Nk = N

A simple random sample (with or without replacement ) is selected independently in each stratum, the sample size in the ith stratum being
ni (i = 1, 2……, k). Thus the total sample size is n1 = n2 = ……. = nk.

The stratification should be performed in such a manner that the strata are homogeneous within themselves with respect to the characteristic under study. On the other hand, strata should be heterogeneous between themselves. Sometimes administrative convenience is taken into consideration to stratify the population. For instance, in order to study the problems of railway commuters each railway division may be considered to be a different stratum. In rural areas, the region covering adjacent districts are likely to be homogenous with respect to socio-economic and cultural pattern. Hence they could be included in a Common strata. Distribution of consumer products may face different types of problems in rural, urban or hilly areas. These may be considered as separate stratum from the point of view of management.

Cluster Sampling : In this method of sampling a collection or a Cluster of sampling units are selected in a random manner. Then each unit of the cluster is included in the sample.
In order to motivate the use of a Cluster, we consider a survey where the sampling units are households in a rural area. If simple random sampling is used to select households they will be located over several villages. On the other hand, a village can be regarded as a Cluster of households. We select a few villages randomly and include every household in the selected villages in our sample. Such a sampling procedure will be an illustration of Cluster Sampling. It has a number of advantages over simple random sampling.
i) If the households are chosen using simple random sampling, they are likely to be distributed over several villages. Hence from administrative point of view such a selection will involve more cost, more field supervision and more traveling. On the other hand, if a selected village is completely enumerated, the cost involved will be lower and the supervision exercised will be better.
ii) If the households in the sample are distributed over several villages then a frame containing the list of households of each of these villages is necessary for proper identification and selection of the household in the sample. On the other hand, if every household in a selected village is included in the sample, no sampling frame listing the households in a village is necessary.
iii) If the type of question is of intimate nature an isolated household selected in a village is unlikely to cooperate with the investigators. On the other hand, if every household in a village is visited, a particular household after observing that his neighbours are also being interviewed are likely to offer greater cooperation and as such the quality of the basic data will be more reliable.

In the example presented in the section clusters have been formed based on geographic subdivisions. A village is a natural geographic cluster of households. A Cluster sample with clusters based on geographic subdivisions is known as area Sample and the procedure is known as area Sampling.

Discuss a hypothesis . What types of hypotheses you know ?

Discuss a hypothesis . What types of hypotheses you know ? Discuss each of them with suitable examples in the context of business environment .


Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones:
“Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling” or
“the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.”
These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.
Characteristics of hypothesis: must possess the following characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many a time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “ is testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation. “
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relations hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with mot known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accepted as being the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.